List human body sites generally considered to be sterile. In preparation for the second exam, you should answer the following objectives.  This is not meant to be a complete list of material required for the second exam.

Explain why viruses are generally considered to be acellular and nonliving.

Discuss the methods used to cultivate viruses.

Identify and describe the following viral structures; capsid, nucleocapsid, icosohedral and helical capsids, envelopes, and complex viruses.

List the types of nucleic acids found in viruses.

Describe the important criteria used to characterize and identify (i.e., taxonomy) viruses.

Define arbovirus.

Discuss the phases of a one-step growth curve for viruses.

Describe the replication cycles of bacteriophage and animal viruses.

Compare and contrast the three known mechanisms of how animal viruses enter a host cell.

Compare and contrast early and late viral proteins.

Compare and contrast how naked and enveloped viruses leave animal cells.

Explain why the loss of an envelope by an enveloped virus results in inactivity of the virus.

Describe the effects virus infections produce on host cells.

Define cytopathic effect (CPE).

Describe the role (i.e., potential mechanisms) of viruses causing cancer siting several examples.

Discuss the role of oncogenes in cancer formation.

Describe the characteristics of viroids and prions.

Describe the relationship between PrP(sc) and PrP(c).

Describe the Kingdoms in the Six-Kingdom classification scheme of living organisms and the criteria used for classification.

Describe the Kingdoms in the Eight-Kingdom classification scheme of living organisms and the criteria used for classification.

Describe the three Domains (Empires) in the Three-Domain classification scheme of living organisms and the criteria used for classification.

Discuss the role the United Federation of Planets played in the battle of Kitimer and the effect this had on the relationship with the Klingon empire. (just kidding, wanted to know if you were paying attention)

Describe nanobacteria (nano-organisms).

Define the following terms; symbiosis, commensalism, mutualism, parasitism, obligate parasite, facultatitive parasite, endoparasite, and ectoparasite.

List human body sites generally considered to be sterile.

Discuss the factors that affect a host's resistance to infectious diseases.

Explain the function of the first line of defense, and give examples of physical barriers to infection.

Discuss examples of an animal's nonspecific chemical resistance to infection.

Explain how normal flora helps protect a host against infection.

Describe probiotics and pre-biotics.

Define inflammation.

Describe the function and features of the inflammatory response.

Describe the function and features of phagocytosis (including chemotaxis, extravasation, and opsonins).

Describe the different types of phagocytic white blood cells (e.g., mononuclear, granulocyctic, etc.)

Discuss phagocytosis and how this process results in the death of microorganisms.

Discuss the mechanism of the complement system and its role in fighting diseases.

Define the following: innate immunity, acquired immunity, natural active immunity, natural passive immunity, artifical active immunity, and artificial passive immunity.

Describe the various types of vaccines.

Discuss the role of T lymphocytes, B lymphocytes, and plasma cells in the immune response.

Define the following: antigen, hapten, antigenic determinants, and valence.

Compare antigen to immunogen.

Describe the structure of an antibody molecule identifying the Fc, Fab, light chain, and heavy chain regions.

Compare the following: IgA, IgG, IgE, IgD, and IgM.

Define cytokines and discuss their role in an immune response.

Describe the formation of a humoral mediated immune response.

Compare the T cell dependant HMI response to the T cell independant HMI response.

Discuss an anamnestic immune response.

Discuss the use of antibodies in diagnosing infectious diseases.

Describe the formation of a cell mediated immune response.

Explain how a T cell deficiency affects both HMI and CMI responses.

Discuss the role of skin testing in diagnosing infectious diseases.

Define tolerance and discuss how tolerance may arise.

Define hypersensitivity and allergin.

Compare the four types of hypersensitivity reactions and identify the mediators (types of allergen, cells and other factors) involved.

Give examples of hypersensitivity reactions.

Define anergy.

Define the following: xenograft, allograft, isograft, and autograft and place them in order of least likely to most likely to be rejected.

Discuss graft vs. host disease.

Discuss the theory of immune surveilance of cancer.

Explain why the immune system is not always effective in removing tumors.

Discuss possible causes of autoimmune diseases.

Describe autoimmune diseases.

Discuss the autoimmune diseases systemic lupus erythematosous (SLE), rheumatoid arthritis, myasthenia gravis, and type 1 diabetes (insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus; IDDM).

Discuss the different types of immunodefiencies explaining what types of diseases patients are prone to.

Discuss what is involved in pathogenicity.

Define reservoirs and vectors.

Discuss tissue tropism of viruses.

Describe mechanisms whereby viruses can damage their host.

Discuss mechanisms used by bacteria to attach to various surfaces.

List the important iron carrying proteins found in humans.

Describe mechanisms bacteria use to acquire iron during infections.

List enzymes produced by bacteria that faciliate spreading during infections.

Discuss how bacterial toxins reach susceptible target cells.

Discuss the structure and pathogenicity of endotoxin.

Describe the three main categories of bacterial exotoxins.

Discuss the mechanisms of action of the thiol activated, cholera, and diphtheria toxins.

Describe the expression of the toxin gene of C. diphtheriae, including the role of the repressor and operator.

Discuss how bacteria can cause immunologically mediated tissue damage (e.g., molecular mimicry).

Define super antigens and explain how they contribute to infectious diseases.

Define pathogenecity islands.

Describe mechansms used by bacteria to evade the immune response.

Discuss how bacteria are able to survive inside phagocytic cells.

Define antibody proteases.